Fungus (white) attached to the roots of a small pine tree (brown). Image via Wikipedia User:Silk666.
The Amanita [mushroom] family also includes some of the best-known tree-partnering fungi on Earth. Many of the mushrooms in this family are mycorrhizae — fungi that coil themselves in and around the roots of trees.
The tree provides them with food it makes topside in return for a vastly improved underground absorptive network. This network, made by the many searching filaments of the fungus, brings much more water and many more minerals to the tree than it would otherwise be able to procure for itself.
Redwood saplings with (right) and without (left) mycorrhizae. Image by Mike Amaranthus, USDA.
In fact:
Some plants are “mycorrhizal-obligate,” meaning that they can’t survive to maturity without their fungal associate. Important mycorrhizal-obligate plants in western North America are sagebrush, bitterbrush, and some native bunchgrasses.
This comes from an interesting article by Jennifer Frazer on Amanita mushrooms, which are so symbiotic with their plant hosts that not only do they not decay them, they actually can’t decay them.
Rain falls.
Some runs off,
Some seeps into the ground.
Water drips from the tips of limestone straws on the roof of Twins Cave.
It trickles through soil.
Leaching acids, organic,
Out of the leaf litter,
But even without these,
It’s already, every so slightly, corrosive, From just the carbon dioxide in the air.
Gravity driven,
The seeping water seeks the bedrock,
Where it might find,
In the Ozark Mountains,
Limestone.
Planktonic shell (from Coon Creek which is 30 million years old, compared to the limestone rocks in the Ozarks which are 300 million years old.)
Limestone:
Microscopic shells, of plankton,
Raining down, over millenia,
Compacting into rocks,
In a closing ocean,
As North America and Africa collide,
From the Devonian to the Carboniferous.
Orogenic uplift,
Ocean-floor rocks,
Become mountains,
Appalachians, Ouachitas,
The Ozark Plateau.
The collision of North America and Africa uplifted the limestone rocks from the closing ocean (the Rheic Ocean) to create the Ouachita Mountains and Ozark Plateau. (Figure adapted from iimage by Dr. Ron Blakey - http://jan.ucc.nau.edu/~rcb7).
Limestone dissolves,
In acid water.
Shaping holes; caves in bedrock,
Where we go,
Exploring.
A fascinating study of 56,000 generations of bacteria, in 12 different populations, carefully documents how a new ability evolved in one of the populations — the ability to use citrate for food in addition to glucose.
About the key step in the process:
“It wasn’t a typical mutation at all, where just one base-pair, one letter, in the genome is changed,” he said. “Instead, part of the genome was copied so that two chunks of DNA were stitched together in a new way. One chunk encoded a protein to get citrate [for food] into the cell, and the other chunk caused that protein to be expressed.”
The first stage was potentiation, when the E. coli accumulated at least two mutations that set the stage for later events. The second step, actualization, is when the bacteria first began eating citrate, but only just barely nibbling at it. The final stage, refinement, involved mutations that greatly improved the initially weak function. This allowed the citrate eaters to wolf down their new food source and to become dominant in the population.
Note
I’ve been discussing different genres of scientific writing with my middle school class, so it’s interesting to point out that the article this post refers to is just a press release about the actual research paper. These are two very distinct types of scientific writing.
The rate of radioactive decay of Chlorine-36 (blue x's) seems to be related to the distance between the Earth and the Sun (red line). (Image from Dekant, 2012).
In pre-Calculus, we’re figuring out how to match curves to data. The scientists in this study do something similar, trying to see what types of sinusoidal curves will match the data, then seeing what natural phenomena have the same period (the time it takes for one cycle).
Although we are, by number at least, 90% bacteria, only recently have scientists with the Human Microbiome Project have just begun figuring out who those bugs are.
[The] trillions of microbes that make their homes in and on us do an excellent job keeping us healthy (crowding out harmful microbes) and sated (breaking down a lot of the food we ingest).
Now that disturbances in this rich microbiome community have been linked to weight gain, inflammatory bowel disease, vaginal infections and risk for infection with harmful microbes (such as methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus, or MRSA), the importance of understanding what makes up a “healthy” microbiome has become even more apparent.
Ms. Wilson’s chemistry class is looking at basic chemical reactions, and today they got to fire an acetylene cannon. When calcium carbide (CaC2) reacts with water (H2O) they produce acetylene (C2H2), which is quite explosive.
CaC2 + 2 H2O → C2H2 + Ca(OH)2
Acetylene is so flammable, because its carbons are held together by a triple bond: when the triple bond breaks it releases a lot of energy (about 839 kJ per mole).
Table 1: Bond strengths of simple hydrocarbons with carbon to carbon bonds
Name
Chemical Formula
Diagram
Carbon to Carbon Bond Strength (kJ/mol)
Acetylene
C2H2
839
Ethene
C2H4
611
Ethane
C2H6
347
The explosion is a result of the combustion of the acetylene:
2C2H2 + 5O2 –> 2H2O + 4CO2
And this whole process — carbide plus water to give acetylene, which is then burned — was used by miners in the early 20th century to make headlamps (among other types of lamps).
A carbide lamp (image via Wikipedia).
The cannon itself is a simple device, made of a 50cm tube of 2-3 inch diameter PVC (sorry about the mixed units), with a screw cap at one end. The carbide grains (about 0.5 g) are placed on the inside of the cap, which is then screwed on to the bottom of the tube. A few drops of water are then added through a small hole in the PVC using a plastic dropper — you can listen for the sizzling to tell if the carbide decomposition reaction is happening. Finally a flame is applied to the same hole as the water. The sock, by the way, is just lightly tucked in near the top of the PVC tube, about 5 cm in.
The explosion was loud, and Ms. Wilson’s sock traveled about 10 meters. It was suitably impressive. I think the student who was the most impressed was the one who had weighed out the calcium carbide, becaues 0.5 grams is really only four or five grains.
Sitting around the campfire and telling stories on the Current River.
Writing is a process. There might not be one single, best, process, but breaking the process into steps is often useful for new writers trying to find their voice. The following steps come from my Middle School Montessori Training a few years back. While I’m not teaching language at the moment, I would like to get my students to write up their experience in the thunderstorm on the river using at least parts of this process.
Step 1: Collect Seeds
Collect ideas for topics to write about. This is why we keep a writer’s journal with us at all times. Anything can be a seed: quotes from books you’ve read; overheard snatches of conversation; ticket stubs; artifacts; rocks; notes about profound experiences (which is what I count the canoe trip in the storm as).
Step 2: Develop ideas
Take a seed idea and write about it. Write fast, write rough. You can fix it later. Write to surprise yourself.
Step 3: First Draft
Use the ideas from your rough writing to make a first draft. This does not mean editing the rough writing, in fact, you should probably put away the rough writing and start your draft from scratch.
Step 4: Revision (the hardest part)
Revision is making the big changes to your writing. Even if you liked your first draft a lot, making big changes helps you see your work in new, interesting ways. Try:
Rewrite in a new genre: convert your memoir, for example into a play, or change the perspective from first person to third person.
Physically cut and paste your story. Maybe the conclusion actually works better as an introduction? Rearrange your paragraphs, rearrange the sentences in your paragraphs. See what works and what does not.
Read out loud, or have someone read to you. As you read you can rearrange the paragraphs (read the last paragraph first, for example).
Step 5: Edit
Now that you have a draft that you like, edit it for spelling, grammar, punctuation, capitalization etc.
Step 6: Polish and Publish
Make your story look pretty. Format your text how you want it, or how it needs to be in your word processing program. Remember, simpler is better. Fancy fonts and colors tend to distract from your story.
Remember that there’s no final version of your story. Writers are always making changes (or wanting to make changes). You can always make changes and, if you don’t like them, revert to the original.
Notes
As an example of how revision can change a story, I have my two versions of our thunderstorm adventure here and here. They’re aimed at different audiences, but you can see that they came from the same source.
The middle school has been studying The Tempest over the last quarter. In order to give students a deeper connection with this Shakespearean play, we arranged for students to experience the titular meteorological phenomenon on our outdoor education trip last week. Since we’re located in the mid-continent, replicating the precise maritime conditions and acquiring the appropriate vessel would have been cost prohibitive. Instead, taking advantage of the local geography and socio-cultural predilections, we improvised by arranging for a series of thunderstorms during a canoe trip in the Ozarks.
In truth, the main purpose of our outdoor education trip was to integrate the upcoming 7th graders and new students into the middle school class. The key advantage of the multi-aged classroom is the opportunity for older students to mentor the younger students, and propagate the appropriate classroom culture and expectations from year to year. But for this to work well requires students to develop strong working relationships and communication skills. The isolation of the trip (no technology) and the coordination required for the tasks we perform (such as paddling a 2-person canoe) greatly facilitate this process.
Despite being drenched, chilled, and a little scared, the group’s performance was remarkable. They endured the worst of the storms, looking out for each other with encouraging words and heartening smiles. They found the strength within themselves as individuals and as a group to keep morale high while on the river. And, when we pulled over, were able to bask in the giddy relief that a good group feels after stressful situations. By the end, they had developed a genuine camaraderie forged by a shared, intense challenge.
P.S. We also did some rock climbing, caving, spent a night on a sandbar, journaled, and learned a bit about geology, hydrogeology, fish surveys, the rock cycle, and some vocabulary (“hubris” was a term, new to many, that was ably demonstrated by the pair who flipped their canoe).
Rock climbing.Spelunking.
P.P.S. Our excellent, invaluable guides on the trip were from Discovery Ministries, which is a religious organization, but they do non-religious programs for groups like ours.
